% IMPORTANT: The following is UTF-8 encoded.  This means that in the presence
% of non-ASCII characters, it will not work with BibTeX 0.99 or older.
% Instead, you should use an up-to-date BibTeX implementation like “bibtex8” or
% “biber”.

@ARTICLE{Todd:136830,
      author       = {Todd, Gabrielle and Noyes, Carolyn and Flavel, Stanley C
                      and Della Vedova, Chris B and Spyropoulos, Peter and
                      Chatterton, Barry and Berg, Daniela and White, Jason M},
      title        = {{I}llicit stimulant use is associated with abnormal
                      substantia nigra morphology in humans.},
      journal      = {PLOS ONE},
      volume       = {8},
      number       = {2},
      issn         = {1932-6203},
      address      = {San Francisco, California, US},
      publisher    = {PLOS},
      reportid     = {DZNE-2020-03152},
      pages        = {e56438},
      year         = {2013},
      abstract     = {Use of illicit stimulants such as methamphetamine, cocaine,
                      and ecstasy is an increasing health problem. Chronic use can
                      cause neurotoxicity in animals and humans but the long-term
                      consequences are not well understood. The aim of the current
                      study was to investigate the long-term effect of stimulant
                      use on the morphology of the human substantia nigra. We
                      hypothesised that history of illicit stimulant use is
                      associated with an abnormally bright and enlarged substantia
                      nigra (termed ‘hyperechogenicity’) when viewed with
                      transcranial sonography. Substantia nigra morphology was
                      assessed in abstinent stimulant users (n = 36; 31±9
                      yrs) and in two groups of control subjects: non-drug users
                      (n = 29; 24±5 yrs) and cannabis users (n = 12;
                      25±7 yrs). Substantia nigra morphology was viewed with
                      transcranial sonography and the area of echogenicity at the
                      anatomical site of the substantia nigra was measured at its
                      greatest extent. The area of substantia nigra echogenicity
                      was significantly larger in the stimulant group
                      (0.273±0.078 cm2) than in the control (0.201±0.054 cm2;
                      P<0.001) and cannabis (0.202±0.045 cm2; P<0.007) groups.
                      $53\%$ of stimulant users exhibited echogenicity that
                      exceeded the 90th percentile for the control group. The
                      results of the current study suggest that individuals with a
                      history of illicit stimulant use exhibit abnormal substantia
                      nigra morphology. Substantia nigra hyperechogenicity is a
                      strong risk factor for developing Parkinson's disease later
                      in life and further research is required to determine if the
                      observed abnormality in stimulant users is associated with a
                      functional deficit of the nigro-striatal system.},
      keywords     = {Adolescent / Adult / Central Nervous System Stimulants:
                      poisoning / Cocaine: poisoning / Drug Users / Humans /
                      Methamphetamine: poisoning / Middle Aged /
                      N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine: poisoning /
                      Reproducibility of Results / Substantia Nigra: diagnostic
                      imaging / Substantia Nigra: drug effects / Surveys and
                      Questionnaires / Ultrasonography, Doppler, Transcranial:
                      methods / Young Adult / Central Nervous System Stimulants
                      (NLM Chemicals) / Methamphetamine (NLM Chemicals) / Cocaine
                      (NLM Chemicals) / N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
                      (NLM Chemicals)},
      cin          = {AG Berg},
      ddc          = {610},
      cid          = {I:(DE-2719)5000055},
      pnm          = {345 - Population Studies and Genetics (POF3-345)},
      pid          = {G:(DE-HGF)POF3-345},
      typ          = {PUB:(DE-HGF)16},
      pubmed       = {pmid:23418568},
      pmc          = {pmc:PMC3572078},
      doi          = {10.1371/journal.pone.0056438},
      url          = {https://pub.dzne.de/record/136830},
}