Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines (2017-2025: An update) - endorsed by the European Society for Brain Stimulation (ESBS) and by the International Federation for Clinical Neurophysiology (IFCN).

Antal, Andrea; Filipović, Saša R; D'Urso, Giordano; Opitz, Alexander; Paulus, Walter; Cohen Kadosh, Roi; Wischnewski, Miles; Haueisen, Jens; Wessel, Maximilian J; Vanderhasselt, Marie-Anne; Lefaucheur, Jean-Pascal; Nitsche, Michael A; Schellhorn, Klaus; Van Waes, Vincent; Miniussi, Carlo; Ganho-Ávila, Ana; Rothwell, John; Thielscher, Axel; Priori, Alberto; Uusitalo, Susanne; Fröhlich, Flavio; Nikander, Mika; Razza, Lais B; Bergmann, Til Ole; Ferrucci, Roberta; Rueger, Maria A; Siebner, Hartwig Roman; Hamilton, Roy H; Ruffini, Giulio; Hallett, Mark; Bjekić, Jovana; Sack, Alexander T; Hummel, Friedhelm C; Plewnia, Christian; Brunelin, Jerome; Langguth, Berthold; Fitzgerald, Paul B; Lavidor, Michal; O'Shea, Jacinta; Ramasawmy, Perianen; Herrmann, Christoph S; Rossi, Simone; Alekseichuk, Ivan; Schuhmann, Teresa; Assecondi, Sara; Baeken, Chris; Bikson, Marom; Chen, Robert; Brunoni, Andre R; Salvador, Ricardo; Padberg, Frank; Ugawa, Yoshikazu; Shirota, Yuichiro; Ziemann, Ulf; Charvet, Leigh; Moliadze, Vera; Flöel, Agnes; Diedrich, Lukas; Nikolin, Stevan; Wexler, Anna; George, Mark S; Jaberzadeh, Shapour

doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2025.2111436

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024	7	_	\|a 10.1016/j.clinph.2025.2111436 \|2 doi
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024	7	_	\|a pmc:PMC7618810 \|2 pmc
024	7	_	\|a 1388-2457 \|2 ISSN
024	7	_	\|a 0921-884X \|2 ISSN
024	7	_	\|a 1872-8952 \|2 ISSN
037	_	_	\|a DZNE-2026-00245
041	_	_	\|a English
082	_	_	\|a 610
100	1	_	\|a Antal, Andrea \|b 0
245	_	_	\|a Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines (2017-2025: An update) - endorsed by the European Society for Brain Stimulation (ESBS) and by the International Federation for Clinical Neurophysiology (IFCN).
260	_	_	\|a Amsterdam [u.a.] \|c 2026 \|b Elsevier Science
336	7	_	\|a article \|2 DRIVER
336	7	_	\|a Output Types/Journal article \|2 DataCite
336	7	_	\|a Journal Article \|b journal \|m journal \|0 PUB:(DE-HGF)16 \|s 1773045026_14562 \|2 PUB:(DE-HGF) \|x Review Article
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520	_	_	\|a This guideline summarizes updated safety data (2017-2025) and provides expert recommendations on the use of low intensity transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) in humans. tES encompasses several techniques including transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), oscillatory transcranial direct current stimulation (otDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), transcranial temporal interference stimulation (tTIS), and their combinations or variations. Across over 300,000 sessions involving healthy individuals, patients with neuropsychiatric conditions, and other clinical populations, no tES-related serious adverse events (AEs) have been reported. Moderate AEs are rare and limited to a small range of specific applications. Mild AEs are common and include transient symptoms such as localized sensations (e.g., tingling or burning), headaches, and fatigue. Similar mild AEs are also reported by individuals receiving placebo stimulation. The frequency, magnitude, and type of AEs are comparable across healthy, clinical, and vulnerable groups, including children, elderly, or pregnant women. Combined interventions (e.g., co-application with EEG, TMS, or neuroimaging) have not shown increased safety risks. Safety is well-established for both bipolar and multichannel tES when applied up to 4 mA and up to 60 min per day. Higher intensities and longer stimulation durations may also be safe. Nevertheless, the number of studies using intensities above 4 mA or stimulating longer than 60 min is low. Home-based use of treatments is growing rapidly, leveraging remote supervision to provide patients with greater access and enable repeated, sustained dosing paradigms. We recommend using screening and AE questionnaires in future controlled studies, in particular when planning to extend the stimulation parameters applied. We discuss recent regulatory and ethical issues.
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650	_	7	\|a Adverse events \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a Ethics \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a Regulation \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a Safety \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a Training \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a tACS \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a tDCS \|2 Other
650	_	7	\|a tES \|2 Other
650	_	2	\|a Humans \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: adverse effects \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: standards \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: methods \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: ethics \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Societies, Medical: standards \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Neurophysiology: legislation & jurisprudence \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Neurophysiology: standards \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Europe \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation \|2 MeSH
650	_	2	\|a Brain: physiology \|2 MeSH
700	1	_	\|a Bjekić, Jovana \|b 1
700	1	_	\|a Ganho-Ávila, Ana \|b 2
700	1	_	\|a Alekseichuk, Ivan \|b 3
700	1	_	\|a Assecondi, Sara \|b 4
700	1	_	\|a Bergmann, Til Ole \|b 5
700	1	_	\|a Bikson, Marom \|b 6
700	1	_	\|a Brunelin, Jerome \|b 7
700	1	_	\|a Brunoni, Andre R \|b 8
700	1	_	\|a Charvet, Leigh \|b 9
700	1	_	\|a Chen, Robert \|b 10
700	1	_	\|a Cohen Kadosh, Roi \|b 11
700	1	_	\|a Diedrich, Lukas \|b 12
700	1	_	\|a D'Urso, Giordano \|b 13
700	1	_	\|a Ferrucci, Roberta \|b 14
700	1	_	\|a Filipović, Saša R \|b 15
700	1	_	\|a Fitzgerald, Paul B \|b 16
700	1	_	\|a Flöel, Agnes \|0 P:(DE-2719)2812683 \|b 17 \|u dzne
700	1	_	\|a Fröhlich, Flavio \|b 18
700	1	_	\|a George, Mark S \|b 19
700	1	_	\|a Hamilton, Roy H \|b 20
700	1	_	\|a Haueisen, Jens \|b 21
700	1	_	\|a Hallett, Mark \|b 22
700	1	_	\|a Herrmann, Christoph S \|b 23
700	1	_	\|a Hummel, Friedhelm C \|b 24
700	1	_	\|a Jaberzadeh, Shapour \|b 25
700	1	_	\|a Langguth, Berthold \|b 26
700	1	_	\|a Lavidor, Michal \|b 27
700	1	_	\|a Lefaucheur, Jean-Pascal \|b 28
700	1	_	\|a Miniussi, Carlo \|b 29
700	1	_	\|a Moliadze, Vera \|b 30
700	1	_	\|a Nikander, Mika \|b 31
700	1	_	\|a Nikolin, Stevan \|b 32
700	1	_	\|a Nitsche, Michael A \|b 33
700	1	_	\|a Opitz, Alexander \|b 34
700	1	_	\|a O'Shea, Jacinta \|b 35
700	1	_	\|a Padberg, Frank \|b 36
700	1	_	\|a Plewnia, Christian \|b 37
700	1	_	\|a Priori, Alberto \|b 38
700	1	_	\|a Ramasawmy, Perianen \|b 39
700	1	_	\|a Razza, Lais B \|b 40
700	1	_	\|a Rossi, Simone \|b 41
700	1	_	\|a Rothwell, John \|b 42
700	1	_	\|a Rueger, Maria A \|b 43
700	1	_	\|a Ruffini, Giulio \|b 44
700	1	_	\|a Sack, Alexander T \|b 45
700	1	_	\|a Salvador, Ricardo \|b 46
700	1	_	\|a Schellhorn, Klaus \|b 47
700	1	_	\|a Schuhmann, Teresa \|b 48
700	1	_	\|a Shirota, Yuichiro \|b 49
700	1	_	\|a Siebner, Hartwig Roman \|b 50
700	1	_	\|a Thielscher, Axel \|b 51
700	1	_	\|a Ugawa, Yoshikazu \|b 52
700	1	_	\|a Uusitalo, Susanne \|b 53
700	1	_	\|a Wexler, Anna \|b 54
700	1	_	\|a Paulus, Walter \|b 55
700	1	_	\|a Vanderhasselt, Marie-Anne \|b 56
700	1	_	\|a Van Waes, Vincent \|b 57
700	1	_	\|a Wessel, Maximilian J \|b 58
700	1	_	\|a Wischnewski, Miles \|b 59
700	1	_	\|a Baeken, Chris \|b 60
700	1	_	\|a Ziemann, Ulf \|b 61
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Marc 21

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